#lang scribble/base
@(require "../Bibliography/cite.rkt"
          scriblib/footnote
          "../Images/image-support.rkt")

@define-cite-footnote[footnote
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@title{Trier (Augusta Treverorum)}

@author{Morgan Lemmer-Webber}

@section{History and Excavation}

Augusta Treverorum was a Roman urban center in @italic{Gallia Belgica} located along the Moselle river in modern day Trier, Germany. Celtic artifacts on the site indicate pre-Roman settlement, from the eponymous tribe of the Treveri.@cite-footnote[Kuhnen2004 63] The exact dates for the foundation of the Roman city are unknown, though it certainly occurred after Caesar's campaigns in Gaul. The first wooden bridge across the Moselle -- and therefore the first dateable evidence of the network of Roman roads in the area -- was built in 17 BCE.@cite-footnote[Landesmuseum1984 180] A fourth century C.E. honorific inscription for Caius and Lucius Caesar, most likely a dedicatory inscription for a sanctuary, reflects the city's engagement with the Imperial cult.@cite-footnote[BreitnerGoethert2008] The location of Trier, along the Moselle river and at the crossroads of two major roadways through Gaul, was prime for both travel and trade and was therefore a strategic location for the governance of the province. By the end of the first century CE, Trier was the seat of the Procurator for @italic{Gallia Belgica, Germania Superior,} and @italic{Germania Inferior}.@cite-footnote[Wightman1970 43]} Trier's political significance grew in the third and fourth centuries. It was the capital of the Gallic Empire from 261-274 CE and the imperial residence of the Western Roman Empire from 286-393 CE.@cite-footnote[Kuhnen2004 69]

@;Kleijwegt: This is already pointed out by Edith Wightman, Roman Trier and the Treveri, 1970, 43; 62.  The official term is simply procurator; you can leave out ‘of finances’.  We know that Trier was the seat because there are funerary inscriptions found on Treveran territory for subaltern and minor officials working for his department; for example, CIL 13.4194 from Niederemmel for an adiutor **I've ordered this book but it won't arrive before the due date

Since Trier has been continuously inhabited since the Roman period, complete excavation of the ancient city is impossible. Like many major European cities with classical origins, some of the larger monumental structures, such as the @italic{Porta Nigra} and the basilica were preserved and re-purposed while others were dismantled to re-use the stone on later structures. More modest structures such as homes, manufacturing centers, and shops were torn down and replaced as the city continued to grow and modernize. With the foundation of the @italic{Provinzialmuseums der preußischen Rheinprovinz} in 1877, now known as the @italic{Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier}, excavations in Trier became more systematized but due to the nature of urban archaeology, excavations have been conducted piecemeal and often correspond with construction.@cite-footnote[PfahlKuhnen2007 384]



@; give more specific excavation history (all of my sources were textile based, not general history of the site
@; Napoleon demolished the Church of St. Simeon to restore the Roman Porta Nigra


@section{Visual Evidence of Textile Production}

The most prominent local evidence concerning textile production is found on the Igel monument, a funerary monument for the Secundini family dating from the early to mid third century CE @figures["Igel2" "Igel1" "Igel4" "Zahn1" "Igel5" "Zahn2" "Igel6" "Zahn3" "Igel7" "Zahn4" "Igel 8" "Zahn5" "Igel9" "Zahn7" "Igel10" "Zahn8" "Zahn6" "Igel11"]. While Igel is located roughly eight kilometers outside of Trier, its location along the Moselle river and along one of the primary roadways through Gaul inevitably link it to the social and economic networks of the ancient city.@cite-footnote[LarssonLoven2002 30] The monument remains @italic{in situ} which, unfortunately, has led to significant deterioration of the reliefs.@footnote{ For this reason, I have included both photographs taken by the author in 2019 as well as drawings of the reliefs from @cite[Zahn1968]}

The monument is a thirty meter (98 ft) tall pillar with decorative elements on the base, podium, primary panel, frieze, attic, cornice, and storey of each side. It is topped with a sculptural representation of Jupiter and Ganymede. The motifs include a combination of genre scenes of stages of the textile trade and mythological scenes.

The primary decorative panel of the south side comprises six portraits, of the deceased that the monument commemorates @figures["Igel4" "Zahn1"]. In the main portrait scene, two men flank a youth. All three wear long-sleeve tunics, the man on the left wears a mantel over his tunic, the man on the right wears a toga over his tunic. The two men each hold a scroll in their left hand and the man on the right grasps the youth's right wrist with his right hand. Above these full-bodied portraits are three roundels. In the center is a woman with two boys in the outer roundels. An inscription below identifies the woman as Publia Pacata, one of the men as Publius Aelius Secundinius, his sons Secundinius Securus and Secundinus Aventinus, the other man is Lucius Saccus Modestus and his son Modestius Macedo.@cite-footnote[LarssonLoven2002 31] The inscription does not include job titles for any of the deceased. 

@nested[#:style 'inset]{D(is) M(anibus) P--- Secu--- voca/t --- / no--- fili(i)s Secundini Securi et Publiae Pa/catae coniugi Secundini Aventini et L(ucio) Sac/cio Modesto et Modestio Macedoni filio ei/ius(!) Luci Secundinius Aventinus et Secundi/nius Securus parentibus defunctis et / sibi vivi ut (h)aberent fecerunt}

@; NDC: Translate inscription
@; Also citation? Or is the full inscription necessary if I gave a summary of it? I don't have time to translate, honestly

On the remaining three sides of the lavishly decorated monument, mythological scenes fill the same pictorial space as the portraits on the front. The eastern side splits the space into two scenes with Thetis dipping Achilles into the river Styx on top. The lower panel is partially illegible but contains a reclining woman (possibly Polyxena). The northern side is dominated by a central medallion with the apotheosis of Hercules. The western side is broken into two scenes of Perseus with the head of Medusa.

The base and attic panels are the most relevant to this study and are primarily filled with genre scenes, many of which depict various aspects of the textile trade. On the southern side both the base and attic panels depict either presentation or inspection of large pieces of finished cloth. The southern base panel (conventionally titled @italic{Tuchladen}/Salesroom) depicts a room with two large tables @figures["Igel5" "Zahn2"]. At the left there is a man seated at the table with a book while two people place or count piles of coins. At the right two men unfold a large piece of cloth while a third man inspects it. At the far right another man carries a large folded or rolled piece of fabric. The background is crowded with other men. The southern attic panel (conventionally titled @italic{Tuchprobe}/Quality Control) depicts four men unfolding a large piece of cloth in the center @figures["Igel6" "Zahn3"]. At the left, one man is centered in an arch carrying in another large piece of folded or rolled cloth over his shoulder and another man moves to take it. At the right, a man is centered in an arch and looks down to the right while another man behind him looks at the unfolded cloth.

The base scene on the northern side (conventionally titled @italic{Verschnürung}/Baling) depicts four men binding a large package with rope. Three of them use poles to maneuver the package while a fourth man secures the ropes. A fifth man stands in the background holding a book @figures["Igel7" "Zahn4"]. The bunching of the packaging where the ropes intersect suggests a product that is large and heavy, but not solid -- such as folded fabric wrapped for shipping. On the western base panel (conventionally titled @italic{Lastwagen}/Goods Cart) a man drives an open cart pulled by three horses out of a city gate @figures["Igel 8" "Zahn5"]. On the cart is a large bale tied similarly to that seen on the northern side and covered with another piece of cloth. The northern and western socles (conventionally titled @italic{Treidelfahrt auf der Mosel}/Mosel River Barge) depict large bales of cloth being transported by water @figures["Igel9" "Zahn7" "Igel10" "Zahn8"]. In both scenes one man sits in the boat with two bundles of product while two other men pull the boat with a rope from the shore. The eastern attic scene (conventionally titled @italic{Kontor}/Counting house), though not directly related to textiles, is likely related to the business affairs of the Secundini @figures["Zahn6"]. It depicts four men standing around a table while a fifth man leans over it and counts two piles of coins and a sixth man sits holding a book. 

Because of the prominence of large, uncut fabrics and their packaging and shipping in the genre scenes, scholars have long agreed that the Secundini family played some part in the textile industry. What their specific role was has varied from scholar to scholar: cloth merchants who dealt only with the final product;@footnote{@cite[Drexel1920] and @cite[DragendorffKruger1924]} landlords who saw the production from sheep to salesroom relying primarily on raw materials and labor from their property and tenants;@cite-footnote[Zahn1968] or clothiers who paid laborers by the piece through production then used their connections to export the cloth.@cite-footnote[Drinkwater1982]

The focus of these genre scenes largely center around management and oversight. The south side of the column bookends the portraits of the Secundini with the presentation of cloth in a showroom and the inspection of the product @figures["Igel1"]. Three of the scenes include books as an indication of record-keeping @figures["Igel5" "Igel7" "Zahn6"]. The @italic{Tuchprobe} scene includes seven laborers intently focused on their work while the eighth man is clearly distinguished -- bearded where the others are clean shaven, standing at the edge of the scene, looking down at the object in his hands@footnote{ The object is unclear, it is not likely a book, perhaps a scroll or a smaller piece of fabric he is inspecting} -- perhaps as an overseer.

A notable absence in this decorative plan is any stage of production. The eastern base panel is too damaged today for interpretation @figures["Igel11"]. Dragendorf and Krüger suggested that it may have been a workshop scene @figures["DragendorffKruger"], though that interpretation is based on vague outlines of figures.@cite-footnote[DragendorffKruger1924] With this possible exception, the product visible on the column is depicted in a completed state. The second notable absence, any women in the textile scenes, is perhaps related to the first. The roles that women would have played in Roman textile production -- spinning, weaving, and some processing of the fiber -- apparently did not fit into the overall themes of industry and professional oversight that the image program otherwise conveys. 

This focus on industry via commerce, and sales over production is seen in other, less prominent, funerary reliefs from Trier as well. In a fragment of a funerary relief from Trier, a man holds up one end of a large piece of fabric with his right hand while gesturing toward it with his left @figures["Schwinden1"]. This fits under the image-type of the @italic{Tuchprobe}/Quality Control scene as seen in the southern attic panel of the Igel Monument and elsewhere in Gallo-Roman iconography.@footnote{@cite[Schwinden1989], 294-295 and @cite[LarssonLoven2002] 4.3.2} A fragment of a funerary relief from Trier shows rolls of fabric stacked on a shelf, likely as part of a @italic{Tuchladen}/Salesroom scene. Only one funerary relief from Trier, unfortunately now lost, referenced any connection between women and textile production. It depicted three women, one of whom wielded a @index['("distaff")]{distaff}.@footnote{There are no images of this relief as it was most likely destroyed in WWII, unfortunately I have no more information about it at present than stated here @cite[LarssonLoven2002 50]}

@; Who were the Secundini? "major landowners who are using seasonally available labour to convert a raw product from their estates (sheep's wool) into profitable finished goods." @cite-footnote[Wild2002 200]

@; CW: I feel really left hanging by this last sentence!  It seems so important, is there anything more that can be said from the sources that talked about it, including how it was lost?  Footnote about its destruction in WW2?

@section{Textual Evidence of Textile Production}

The Late Antique text the @italic{Notitia Dignitatum} identifies two textile related posts in Trier – the @italic{Procurator gynaecii Triberorum, Belgicae primae}@footnote{@italic{Notitia Dignitatum Oc} XI 58} and the @italic{Praepositus barbaricariorum siue argentariorum Triberorum.}@footnote{@italic{Notitia Dignitatum Oc} XI 77; @cite[Fairley1897] 32} Since the @italic{Notitia Dignitatum} is just a list of dignitaries, it does not give context as to exactly what function either of these positions served in the textile industry of Trier, though it is clear that both are related to textile production.@footnote{@cite[NotitiaDignitatum] 151 and @cite[Fairley1897] 31}

@;The Notitia Dignitatum is probably dated ca. 420 CE, so slightly outside of the timeframe of this study

@italic{Gynaecaeum} is a Latinized form of the Greek word @italic{γυναικεῖον} which refers to the women's quarters of a household. Over time the word became short hand for the domestic labor that occurred in those women's spaces, i.e. textile work.@cite-footnote[WildGynaecea] In this context, the position has been interpreted as the procurator of the 'weaving-house.@cite-footnote[Fairley1897 31] Whether this was in fact a centralized production center where @index['("quasillaria/spinner")]{spinners} and @index['("textor/weaver")]{weavers} worked or something closer to an administrative building where laborers exchanged goods produced at home for payment is unclear.@cite-footnote[WildGynaecea 51] The extent of women's roles in the @italic{gynaecaeum} is likewise unclear. Spinning and weaving were respectable means for women to make money largely because they could be done from the home; however, women working in a centralized public location would likely be of lower classes, slaves, or otherwise marginalized.@footnote{This could include criminals as discussed below, or women whose debt lowered their social status such as Aurelia Taesis from Karanis, P. Mich. Inv. 2819} However, regardless of whether there were in fact women working at these weaving houses, the term itself confirms the lingering association between textile production and women's domestic work.@cite-footnote[Wild1976-Gynaecea]

Sources sentencing criminals to time in Gynaecea suggest that such warehouses may have been closer to prison labor or workhouses.@cite-footnote[Wild1976-Gynaecea] The feminine name of the warehouse in this context, suggests two further implications: For the men working there, it was emasculating and the women there were associated with sex-workers.@footnote{This fits in with the convention of the spinning @italic{hetairai}}
@;get more sources and beef this paragraph up

@; NDC: I take it there is no archaeological evidence for the gynaecaeum. What evidence is there? Are there other ref's to the gyn. here or elsewhere? You've proposed so many translations for g. at this point ... so wait, were these work areas or brothels or what? What is the association with textiles in specific, is it just that they are feminine-places? Further on the spinning hetairai, but also note that this may not be a real thing but an imaginary fiction on vases

The @italic{barbaricariorum siue argentariorum} was likely a textile manufacturer that dealt in high-end fabrics above the quality of the @italic{gynaecaeum}.@cite-footnote[MollerWiering-Subbert2012] The @italic{barbaricarii} that worked in this facility produced cloth that was either brocaded or embroidered with silver or gold threads.@cite-footnote[Wild1970 40] Surviving examples of fabric with gold-thread embroidery survive from the Sarcophagus of St. Paulinus in Trier ca. 395 CE, and another in a third or fourth century CE sarcophagus from nearby Trittenheim.@cite-footnote[Wild1970 131]

@; NDC: offer a translation on barbicariorum siue argentariorum? What is the significance? I don't know the word. Also translate below inscriptions

We also have epigraphic evidence in the form of job titles. A clothier from Trier made a dedicatory inscription to Mithras in Eauze near Bordeaux:@cite-footnote[Schwinden1989 281] @italic{Deo Invict(o) / Sex(tus) Vervic(ius)/ Eutyches / vestar(ius) civ(is) / Trev(er) pater.}@footnote{CIL XIII 558} This brief inscription gives us a great deal of information about the dedicant's public life. He is the highest ranking member of the cult of Mithras in Trier, (the @italic{pater}. His profession is a @italic{vestiarius} (a clothier or tailor). And the fact that the inscription is from Eauze but identifies Sextus Vervicius Eutyches as coming from Trier indicates that he traveled out of the city, likely as part of his business. Other tailors (@italic{vestarii}), mantle merchants (@italic{sagarii}), and linen merchants @italic{lintiarii}) from Trier are mentioned in inscriptions, but notably all male merchants.@footnote{@italic{CIL} 13.542; @italic{CIL} 13.2008; @italic{CIL} 13.2033, see @cite[Schwinden1989 286]} There are no @italic{@index['("lanificia")]{lanificii}} (wool-workers), @index['("quasillaria/spinner")]{@italic{quasillariae} (spinners)}, or @italic{@index['("textrix")]{textrices} (weavers)}. Essentially, there are no job titles of textile producers, and therefore none of the roles associated with women in the textile industry are represented.@footnote{See discussion of job titles on funerary inscriptions in Chapter 6.3, **pgs. #-#} This essentially gives us information via omission. If textiles were produced in Trier, we know that the roles of spinning and weaving were necessary, but the emphasis of commemorative epitaphs in Trier was primarily focused on the mercantile roles of men in higher ranking positions than on the craftsmen/women who produced the textiles.

@;Fill in with more examples from Schwinden of inscriptions.

@section{Archaeological Evidence of Textile Production}

In contrast to other possible sites, Trier does not have a wealth of archaeological evidence for textile production. Since many of the textile tools recorded from the city come from rubbish layers, they can tell us little about who was using them and for what market.@cite-footnote[MollerWiering-Subbert2012 168] The lack of systematic excavations of domestic contexts in Trier likely contributes to this imbalance. The @italic{Rheinisches Landesmuseum}, where the majority of finds from Trier are housed, has few textile tools from the 1st-4th centuries CE on display.@footnote{ In response to my request to view any spindles, spindle whorls, @index['("loom weight")]{loom weights}, @index['("distaff")]{distaffs}, or other spinning and weaving tools in their collections from Trier, Dr. Korana Deppmeyer, a collections research fellow at the Rheinisches Landesmuseum, informed me that they had few of such artifacts in their collections.} A single display case of textile tools @figures["TrierTextileTools" "TrierLoomweights" "TrierNeedles" "TrierSheers" "TrierComb"] includes four loom-weights of unknown provenience, four sewing needles -- three from Trier and one from Newel -- a pair of @as-index{shears} from Lautenbach, and a flat comb from Hontheim.@footnote{ While the short, blunt teeth of the @index['("weaver's comb")]{weaver's combs} from Karanis would have been used to pack the weft strands tightly, the long thin teeth of this comb would more likely have been used to process the wool prior to spinning.} The museum did not have any @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindles or spindle whorls} from the 1st-3rd centuries CE on display, though they did have three earlier spindle whorls from the 4th-1st centuries BCE from a rubbish layer in Brudenbach @figures["BrudenbachWhorls"]. An inscribed @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindle} whorl in the Rheinisches Landesmuseum playfully orders the viewer to "IMPLE ME, SIC VERSA ME" or: "load me up, give me a twist."@footnote{@italic{CIL} XIII. 10019/17, @cite[Wild1970 33]} Two triangular, three-hole weaving tablets were found in Trier, one from the Böhmerstraße and the other from the Barbarathermen.@cite-footnote[Wild1970 141]


Funerary contexts in Trier did not produce much more for textile tools. A fourth century grave in the St. Matthias cemetery in Trier contained a double-handled ornamental jet @index['("distaff")]{distaff}.@cite-footnote[Wild1970 125] While outside of the scope of this study, a bone @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindle} whorl is also mingled with a rich assortment of jewelry and other luxuries from the grave of a 6th century Frankish woman @figures["TrierFrankishWhorl"].

@; NDC: Do they grow wool around Trier? maybe that's obvious ... add more about raw materials

@section{Conclusions}

Trier has strong evidence for the commercial distribution of textiles, but evidence of production is thin. One has to ask two questions: where are the women, and who is performing the labor to produce the actual textile goods? The one reference to women and textile production here is in the archaic name of the @italic{gynaecaeum.} Whether women worked at this facility is unknown, as is the exact nature of what precisely happened there. In fact the only reason this information is recorded is in reference to the male procurator in charge of the facility. Given the elevated status of the mercantile roles and the emphasis placed on trade and oversight, the production roles at Trier have been diminished or erased from the story. This familiar trend matches with our own contemporary stories of industry. Elon Musk and Bill Gates are household names but the general public knows little about the production techniques and laborers at Tesla factories or Microsoft. This, and the historic (yet undervalued) role that women have played in the production of textiles hints at how we should fill in the negative space silhouetting the producing worker: it stands to reason that the likely candidates (at least for spinning) are either women or slaves or both. Particularly if Trier's commercial enterprise was supported by an undervalued cottage industry where women processed and potentially wove textiles from home that were then fed into the commercial pipeline.

@; NDC: That seems like a likely alternative: but then what is the gynaecaeum? How does that fit into the story? I'm still confused there.

@make-footnote[]

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