#lang scribble/base
@(require "../Bibliography/cite.rkt"
          scriblib/footnote
          "../Images/image-support.rkt")

@define-cite-footnote[footnote
                      make-footnote
                      cite-footnote]

@title{Ephesus}

@section{History and Excavation}

Located in modern day Turkey along the Aegean coast, the port city of Ephesus had a long history before its integration into the Roman Republic. The earliest settlement in the area, Çukuriçi Höyük, dates to the seventh millennium BCE and was followed by Bronze Age, Archaic, and Classical settlements that were slightly geographically offset from each other in the region. The location of the Hellenistic settlement persisted and was adapted and expanded in the Roman era.@cite-footnote[Schwaiger2017 80] The port of Ephesus was one of the largest in Asia and its location on the coast of Asia Minor made it a strategic location in a bustling trade network.@footnote{Strab. 14.1.24} From 29 BCE, Ephesus was the capital of the Province of Asia in the Roman Empire.@cite-footnote[Trinkl2004 282] 

Ephesus is an urban site that was under Greek control before it became part of the Roman province of Asia. This means that the association between women and textile production here has a shared history with the Greek tradition.

@; This probably needs more work

@section{Archaeological Evidence of Textile Production}

As was the case for Trier, I am relying on previously published artifacts from Ephesus. I do not have access to a comprehensive database of the archaeological finds at Ephesus in the same way that I do for Karanis. Therefore, I am unable to give exact numbers of textile tools found at the site. The highest concentration of Roman textile tools in Ephesus came from the Roman Terrace Houses and therefore most of the publications on textiles for the site focus on these contexts. As such, I will first present finds from the Terrace Houses followed by a more general summary of finds from elsewhere in the city. 

@subsection{Textile Tools from the Roman Terrace Houses}

The majority of the domestic evidence from Ephesus comes from the two Roman terrace houses (@italic{Hanghaus} 1 and 2). While the structures were built in the Hellenistic period,@cite-footnote[Schwaiger2017 82] they were occupied until the mid-third century CE when they were damaged by an earthquake.@cite-footnote[Trinkl2008 82] The houses were still under repair from that disaster when they were consumed by a fire and the structures were abandoned. Most of the textile tools from the terrace houses can be dated to this destruction level.@cite-footnote[Trinkl2004 281]

@; NDC: Check some of the more general pubs on the hanghauser for further on chronology etc -- Sabine Ladstatter & others

Due to the nature of the site, tools made of perishable materials do not survive. This includes wooden @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindle} shafts and likely wooden whorls as well.@cite-footnote[Trinkl2004 283] The evidence for spinning from Ephesus is therefore comprised of non-perishable components. A grouping of spindle whorls were found in @italic{Hanghaus} 2 WE6. Five of these examples were made of stone @figures["ThurB80" "ThurB81" "ThurB343"] and one of clay @figures["ThurB444"].@cite-footnote[Rathmayr2014 651] A long tapered bone implement may possibly be a spindle shaft @figures["ThurB409"].@cite-footnote[Rathmayr2014 651] Three bronze hooks have been identified as spindle hooks @figures["ThurB35" "ThurB203" "ThurB261"]. These would have been attached to the end of a @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindle} shaft to bind off the spun yarn, keep it neatly affixed to the spindle, and make the process of spinning easier.@cite-footnote[Rathmayr2014 651]

@;  NDC: Can you identify rooms specifically for weaving or textile production? It makes a difference whether these were just random finds or were found in a set... I doubt if anyone would question that weaving took place in Roman Ephesos, the issue is 'patterns'. Again though the lack of LW doesn't nec. imply no weaving; they could have used other types of looms.

In @italic{Hanghaus} 2 there were a total of four @index['("loom weight")]{loom weights} found. However, they do not appear to be an inter-operable set as they are of differing weights and shapes: one pyramidal @figures["ThurB220"], one lentoid @figures["ThurB182"], and two doughnut or ring-shaped weights @figures["ThurB181" "ThurB208"].@cite-footnote[Rathmayr2014 651] A set of four lead pyramidal @index['("loom weight")]{loom weights} discovered in @italic{Hanghaus} 1 displays signs of use with a vertical line worn into the weight above the hole @figures["Trinkl2008_2"].@cite-footnote[Trinkl2008 83] Overall, the loomweights from Ephesus are unornamented, although five have marks that likely reflect ownership -- four have incised crosses, and one has an epsilon rho @figures["Trinkl2008_3"].@cite-footnote[Trinkl2008 83]

@; NDC: date? you say 'mid-3rd c' in the caption, but if they were found in a foundation trench, then might they not be much earlier?

@;figure out why @italic{ЄР} isn't rendering

The only assemblage approaching what textile historians would typically consider a functional set for a full-size warp weighted loom is a group of twenty lentoid @index['("loom weight")]{loom weights} discovered in a foundation trench of the street outside of @italic{Hanghaus} 2 @figures["Trinkl2008_1"].@cite-footnote[Trinkl2008 85] Elisabeth Trinkl, however, argues that the set of four weights could dress a smaller loom.@footnote{This argument is based on precedents of sets of four weights found @italic{in situ} in Pompeii @cite[Allison2004 157]} 

Three objects discovered in @italic{Hanghaus} 2 likely had some function in either textile production or clothing construction @figures["ThurB135"]. These artifacts have larger bulbous terminations at either side and slope down to a thinner central portion. Rathmayr suggests that they were used as either ornamentation or as double buttons to fasten together leather.@cite-footnote[Rathmayr2014 652] Of the Ephesus examples, one is made of bronze and two of iron. Similar artifacts have been identified elsewhere as spools that could be used as @index['("loom weight")]{loom weights} by wrapping the warp threads around the center and securing them in such a way that they are easier to unravel as you weave; however, these artifacts are more commonly made of clay.@footnote{For an analysts of spools from Khania as @index['("loom weight")]{loom weights}, see @cite[Olofsson2015 92]}

@;Look for Gabii comparanda of spools as loomweights

Just outside of @italic{Hanghaus} 2, a bone object was found that has been cautiously identified as a weaving tablet @figures["Trinkl2008_4"].@cite-footnote[Trinkl2008 84] Weaving tablets are typically rectangular devices with three or four holes through which different strands of warp threads are fed. Each time the tablet is rotated, a different warp thread raises, allowing more intricate patterns to be woven than a single-heddle loom on its own accommodates. Like @index['("loom weight")]{loom weights}, a functional set would require a quantity of twenty or more tablets. While the rectangular artifact has only two holes as opposed to the three or four typical of weaving tablets, its function is presumed to be linked to weaving. It is decorated with two sets of concentric circles with dots in the center and again between the two circles.

@; Include Roman tablet for comparanda

Evidence for sewing was also discovered in terrace house 2. A thimble with an open top has textured points on the side to provide traction for the needle @figures["ThurB41"].@cite-footnote[Rathmayr2014 652] Of the four sewing needles two were made of bone @figures["ThurB109" "ThurB185"], two are bronze @figures["ThurB49"]. All four examples vary in size, shape, and the number and size of holes suggesting that they had varied uses.

The most distinctive type of textile tool found in the terrace houses the ornate bone @index['("distaff")]{distaffs} and distaff fragments @figures["Trinkl1" "Trinkl2" "Trinkl3" "Trinkl6" "Trinkl5" "Trinkl7" "Trinkl8"]. While nine of these distaffs were discovered in the terrace houses, they were not part of one assembly. They are all of the @italic{fingerkunkel} or ring distaff type. This shape includes a ring at one end with a shaft that is typically segmented with a smooth workspace and/or segments with alternating geometric designs.@cite-footnote[Trinkl2004 289] The other end of the distaff typically terminates in a decorative element. The ornamentation of these @index['("distaff")]{distaffs} will be discussed in greater detail below.

@; NDC: found together? or separately? Do you refer to these later in the general section (p#

@;NDC: Conclusion here about weaving in the Terrace Houses

@subsection{Textile Tools from Elsewhere in Ephesus}

A set of spinning tools, including a @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindle, spindle whorl}, and @index['("distaff")]{distaff} was discovered in the sarcophagus of a pregnant woman and her unborn child from the @italic{Damianosstoa} @figures["Trinkl1994_1" "Trinkl10"].@cite-footnote[Trinkl1994 81] Other lavish grave goods in this assemblage include jewelry, cosmetics bottles, and a mirror. All three components of this set were made of bone. The spindle shaft is unornamented, has a slight taper, and is slightly curved -- likely due to warping rather than design.@cite-footnote[Trinkl1994 82] The whorl is mostly flat with a slight arch near the base and is decorated with grooves around the hole and at the outer edge.@cite-footnote[Trinkl1994 81]

This @index['("distaff")]{distaff} from the Damianosstoa sarcophagus fits with the type of distaffs excavated from the terrace houses. Three distaff fragments of this type were discovered in the @italic{Staatsmarkt} @figures["Trinkl11" "Trinkl12" "Trinkl13"], and another discovered in the sewer of the Magnesian Gate @figures["Trinkl14"].@cite-footnote[Trinkl2004 286] A final fragment of unknown provenance now housed at the Efes Museum in Selçuk @figures["Trinkl15"] brings the total number of ring @index['("distaff")]{distaffs} from Ephesus to fifteen.@cite-footnote[Trinkl2004 288] The iconography and decoration of these objects will be discussed in greater detail below.

A small bronze spindle hook of the same type discovered in the terrace houses was discovered in front of the Celsus Library.@footnote{Efes Müzesi Inv. 25/68/89, @cite[Trinkl2008] 86}

Although it predates the main scope of this study, it is worthwhile to note that the temple to Artemis, the Artemision, provides a wealth of textile tools such as @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindle whorls}, @index['("loom weight")]{loom weights}, and @index['("distaff")]{distaffs}; however, these are primarily dated to the Archaic through Hellenistic periods.@cite-footnote[Bammer1982] These could suggest either religious production of textiles, or votive offerings of textile tools likely offered by women to the goddess on the occasion of their marriage.@cite-footnote[Kleijwegt2002]

@;Should I include information about Fullers (from Kleijwegt2002? If so, go back and look for information about fulleries from Karanis and Trier

@section{Textual Evidence of Textile Production}

@;@tabular[(list (list "τραπεζει- των γ'" "κανναβα- ρίων Σερβει- λίου στο- ας" "'εριοπωλων 'αστιοπόλων")
@;               (list "πλατείας Βρανχιανης" "λεντιϋφαντων" "συνεργασι- ας κανι [[     ]] των"))]@footnote{@italic{IEph} 2446; @italic{Seg} 4, 541. As published in @cite[Borker1979] no 454}

@; NDC: Source, translation, what is this??? remember that not everybody or every reader of your diss. reads Greek and Latin **Move the footnote outside of the block quote

There is very little written evidence for the production of textiles in Ephesus. A single inscription references a professional association of wool and linen (or potentially towel or basket) @index['("textor/weaver")]{weavers}.@cite-footnote[BendaWeber2013 178] This inscription was part of a group located in the Vedius Gymnasium that indicate reserved seating for various @italic{synergasia} who presumably contributed financially to the upkeep of the facility.@cite-footnote[Borker1979 179] While this type of professional association could include female members, the location of the inscription within the male domain of the Gymnasium suggest a male clientele. 

While not referencing Ephesus in particular, Herodotus notes that the region of Asia Minor is ideal pastureland.@footnote{ Her., @italic{Hist.} 5, 49} The region is therefore well suited for husbandry of sheep and goats producing high quantities and qualities of wool.@cite-footnote[BendaWeber2013 171]

@; NDC: Lots of other evidence for this -- sheep bones from sites etc. Citing Hdt. w/o going into this further. Not that this is wrong -- it *is* good land for sheep. Also read Hdt. 5.49: it's Aristagoras explaining the map of the world to Cleomenes of Sparta -- and he's describing *Phrygia* here : "And next to the Lydians," Aristagoras continued, "the Phrygians live here, to the east; they have the greatest abundance of flocks fo anyone I know ... " But for instance Milesian wool was highly valued even in the Roman period -- look at prices in the edict of Diocletian, where garments from Laodikeia not far from Ephesus are so highly vlaued ... 

@section{Visual Evidence of Textile Production}

While there are no images depicting textile production from Ephesus dating from the Roman period, the ornate @index['("distaff")]{distaffs} discovered in @italic{Hanghaus} 2 and elsewhere within the city deserve further discussion of their visual and stylistic elements. All of the distaffs discussed here are of the @italic{fingerkunkel} or ring-distaff type which has the basic construction of a ring at one end, an unornamented section of shaft that would serve as the work-surface of the distaff, and ornamentation at the other end. In practice, the roving of unspun wool would be wrapped around the shaft to keep it from tangling in the path of the spun thread. The @index['("quasillaria/spinner")]{spinner} would hold the distaff with her ring- or pinky-finger inserted in the loop with the shaft pointing upwards. This manner of holding the distaff is illustrated in a funerary relief from Palmyra, a woman holds a ring-distaff and a @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindle} in her left hand @figures["Harvard1908_3"]. While ring-distaffs with similar decoration and made of precious materials have been found elsewhere in the Roman empire, they most frequently appear as grave goods. The distaffs from Ephesus are unique because there were so many found at one site and they were found in multiple contexts. While the reason for this is unclear, it is possible that these distaffs had shifting meanings throughout their object histories and were used or displayed in the home before ultimately becoming grave goods but these particular @index['("distaff")]{distaffs} were lost in the fire that destroyed the terrace houses. 

@; NDC: Is there anything to be learned from the exact context? Other objects found together? This may be more than you can get into...

The most ornate example from @italic{Hanghaus} 2 is topped with a statuette of Venus @figures["Trinkl1"]. Her torso is nude with drapery clinging at her hips and she is in the @italic{pudica} stance. The statuette shows a comparatively high level of detail and nuance with an attempt at naturalistic folds to the drapery and partially engaged arms that leave space between her under arms and torso. The figure is depicted in @italic{contrapposto} with one knee bent, her shoulders and hips at an angle, and a gentle curve to the spine. Given that the circumference of the statuette's ankles is nearly equal to that of the shaft of the@index['("distaff")]{ distaff}, the inclusion of a tree stump at her feet for support is likely a holdover from the full-scale prototype that the statuette is modeled after. A series of horizontal grooved lines imitating a statue base mark the transition from the figural decoration to the smooth @index['("distaff")]{distaff} shaft. 

@; Do more research on the full-scale prototype and hairstyle

A second Venus @index['("distaff")]{distaff} from @italic{Hanghaus} 2 displays the same basic type but in a less-refined style @figures["Trinkl4"]. Again the statuette is nude from the waist up, with drapery beginning at the hips and her arms in the @italic{pudica} stance. The statuette's head is missing. Her arms are fully engaged to the body, her stance is rigid with a straight spine, and the drapery is achieved with crude incisions in repetitive shapes. Below the statuette is a similar faux statue base transitioning to a smooth @index['("distaff")]{distaff} shaft.

The only other figurative example from @italic{Hanghaus} 2 is topped with a torso-length bust @figures["Trinkl2"]. The head does not survive. The drapery is carved in repetitive patterns of parallel lines. Below the bust is a faux statue base that is supported by four columns, taking on the effect of an entablature. An orb is suspended between the columns. The columns are incised with a spiral pattern. 

A @index['("distaff")]{distaff} of unknown provenance from the Efes Müzesi depicts the same tetrastyle motif with two sets of columns stacked on top of each other @figures["Trinkl15"]. The columns likewise are incised with a spiral pattern. Rather than figurative decoration, this distaff is topped by a pine cone with an incised crosshatched pattern. Two fragmentary @index['("distaff")]{distaffs} from @italic{Hanghaus} 2 have the broken bases of tetrastyle columns, one of which has incised spiral decorations @figures["Trinkl3" "Trinkl6"].

The @index['("distaff")]{distaff} from the sarcophagus in the Damianosstoa is also topped by a pine cone with incised crosshatched pattern @figures["Trinkl10"]. This example has nearly no unornamented space on the shaft. Instead, it features alternating bays decorated with incised lines separated by horizontal grooved lines. This mode of decoration can also be found in other examples ranging from simple and comparatively unornamented @figures["Trinkl6"], or decorated with incised cross-hatch patterns @figures["Trinkl14"].

Only one @index['("distaff")]{distaff} from the Staatsmarkt survives with no ornamentation in the juncture between the shaft and the ring @figures["Trinkl10"]. This @index['("distaff")]{distaff} has a much simpler design overall featuring an unornamented shaft topped with an urn motif. In all other cases of ornamental distaffs from Ephesus, the intersection of the shaft with the ring is decorated either by triangular protrusions @figures["Trinkl1" "Trinkl2" "Trinkl3" "Trinkl6" "Trinkl5" "Trinkl7" "Trinkl8" "Trinkl13" "Trinkl14"], or other flourishes @figures["Trinkl4" "Trinkl3" "Trinkl5"]. Furthermore, the rings could be ornamented at the tip with a palmette @figures["Trinkl1"] or bush motif @figures["Trinkl7"].

Elizabeth Trinkl, who has published most expansively on this object type from Ephesus, argues that this ornamentation around the ring and the comparatively small amount of workspace on the shaft of the @index['("distaff")]{distaff} would render these objects unusable for actual textile production. In terms of daily functional use I would tend to agree with her. However, I disagree that these objects could only have an ornamental or symbolic function. I believe that these objects are large enough to hold enough wool to be used in a ceremonial or religious capacity which would align with their ornamental design.

Trinkl argues that the ornamentation, particularly on the Venus @index['("distaff")]{distaffs}, would not have been covered by wool roving. In the case of the highest quality Venus distaff @figures["Trinkl1"], I agree that the high level of relief and protrusion of elements like the right arm and the tree trunk would be both inconvenient and too fragile to cover with roving. However, this particular distaff is also the largest of those found at Ephesus with an overall length of 22.8cm and an unadorned workspace on the shaft of roughly 7.8cm which would allow ample space for enough wool to occupy the user for a few hours.@footnote{Unfortunately, I have not had the opportunity to view these objects in person and take detailed measurements and the publication gives only the overall length. Measuring off of the publication image and accounting for the ratio, I measured the workspace of this distaff at 7.8cm.} In contrast, the unadorned workspace on the simpler Venus distaff is only roughly 4.2cm @figures["Trinkl4"]; however, all of the figural elements are engaged to the body with minimal protrusions and most of the detail created in low relief. It would be far easier to cover this figure with roving without either tangling the wool or damaging the distaff. In the case of distaffs where the ornamental elements are comprised of geometric segments or tetrastyle columns, the designs are typically formed of shallow incisions that would not hinder use. I argue that the decorative elements could easily have been covered with roving, perhaps even selectively revealing the decoration as the spinning progresses. Furthermore, the projections at the rings would be of little inconvenience if the @index['("distaff")]{distaff} was held properly.

@;Precedents for figurative distaffs at Ephesus were discovered at the Artemesion as far back as the Archaic period.

@;expand these two paragraphs.

@section{Conclusions}

Although the textile tools outside of the terrace houses have not been as systematically published, it is clear that there was domestic production of textiles here. In the shadow of the ornate @index['("distaff")]{distaffs}, the every-day tools referenced here have been underemphasized in the publications. In the context of domestic practice, the six @index['("spindle/whorl")]{spindle} whorls from the terrace houses alone could be used to dress a entire loom depending on the labor-force available. The current research, primarily done by Elizabeth Trinkl, dismisses the production tools because there are few and argues that the @index['("distaff")]{distaffs} are primarily decorative status symbols which reference a tool that used to have practical use. As I will explore further in chapter seven, my own experience through experimental archaeology does not preclude the possibility of limited use within specific ceremonial contexts. Even in a diminished form, if there's a sense of rite, there is probably a continuation of sense of practice. 

@make-footnote[]

@(generate-chapter-bibliography)